The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is celebrated globally for its rapid economic development, glittering cities, and cosmopolitan image. Yet, beneath the surface lies a starkly different reality for the country’s vast migrant workforce, which constitutes nearly 89% of the population. Despite their indispensable role in building and maintaining the nation’s infrastructure and prosperity, migrant workers—primarily from South Asia and Southeast Asia—face systemic discrimination, wage theft, passport confiscation, and restricted movement. This analysis examines the structural roots of these abuses, the persistence of the Kafala system, and the urgent need for meaningful reforms.
The Demographics and Structure of Migrant Labor in the UAE
Migrant Workers: The Majority, Yet Marginalized
The UAE’s economic miracle is built on the backs of migrant workers, who dominate the private and domestic sectors. While a minority are employed in skilled professions, the overwhelming majority labor in construction, hospitality, and domestic work. These workers are recruited from countries such as India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, and the Philippines, often lured by promises of decent wages and better lives.
Despite their numbers and economic contribution, migrant workers are systematically excluded from the rights and privileges enjoyed by Emirati citizens. The Kafala (sponsorship) system, which governs their residency and employment, is at the heart of this exclusion and exploitation.
The Kafala System: Engine of Discrimination and Abuse
Legal Dependency and Power Imbalance
Under the Kafala system, a migrant’s legal status is tied directly to their employer (kafeel), who controls their visa, ability to change jobs, and even their right to remain in the country. This dependency creates a severe power imbalance, making it extremely difficult for workers to escape abusive situations or seek better employment opportunities. Employers can accuse workers of “absconding” if they leave, exposing them to detention and deportation.
Passport Confiscation and Restricted Movement
Despite official bans on passport confiscation, the practice remains widespread in the UAE. Employers routinely seize workers’ passports, stripping them of autonomy and making it nearly impossible to leave the country or change jobs without permission. This leaves workers vulnerable to threats, coercion, and forced labor.
Wage Theft and Recruitment Fees
Wage theft is endemic. Employers frequently delay, underpay, or withhold wages as a form of control or punishment. Many workers arrive in the UAE already burdened by illegal recruitment fees, often borrowed at high interest rates, which can trap them in debt bondage. The absence of a universal, non-discriminatory minimum wage further exacerbates financial insecurity and exploitation.
Living and Working Conditions
Migrant workers, especially those in construction and domestic work, endure long hours, hazardous conditions, and overcrowded accommodations with poor sanitation. Domestic workers—mostly women—are excluded from the main labor law and are particularly vulnerable to verbal, physical, and sexual abuse, as well as wage theft and confinement. Even recent legal reforms have failed to bring protections for domestic workers up to international standards.
Structural Discrimination: Race, Nationality, and Labor Hierarchies
Racialized Wage Gaps and Job Segregation
The UAE labor market is stratified by race and nationality, with Western expatriates occupying high-status, well-paid positions, and South Asian and African migrants relegated to low-paid, precarious jobs. Employers exploit these disparities, creating a racialized hierarchy of wages and working conditions. Workers from poorer countries are paid less for the same work, reinforcing systemic inequalities and deepening social divisions.
Social and Legal Exclusion
Migrant workers are denied access to citizenship, permanent residency, and most social benefits. They cannot access government allowances or participate in political processes. Their legal protection is limited, and their ability to seek redress for abuse is hampered by fear of retaliation, language barriers, and lack of independent unions or collective bargaining rights.
The Illusion of Reform: Laws Without Enforcement
Recent Legal Changes and Their Limits
The UAE has introduced some reforms in response to international scrutiny, such as banning passport confiscation in Dubai in 2001 and passing Federal Law No.10 to guarantee certain rights for domestic workers. However, these reforms are inconsistently implemented, and the government rarely investigates or punishes violations. The reluctance to publish statistics on migrant worker populations and abuses further obscures the scale of the problem.
Persistence of Abuse
Despite these legal changes, exploitation persists at every level—by individual employers, companies, and the state itself. Migrant workers continue to face severe restrictions on changing employers, receiving fair wages, and leaving the country. The lack of transparency and accountability means that deaths, disappearances, and abuses often go undocumented and unpunished.
Climate Change and New Vulnerabilities
Heat Stress and Inadequate Protections
Outdoor migrant workers in the UAE are particularly vulnerable to extreme heat, a risk exacerbated by climate change. The government’s main response—a midday work ban during summer—has been widely criticized as inadequate. Workers continue to suffer heat-related illnesses and fatalities, with little recourse or compensation.
Remittances and Climate-Impacted Families
Wage theft and recruitment fees not only harm workers but also undermine their ability to support families in climate-vulnerable countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal. This is especially critical as these countries face increasing extreme weather events linked to climate change.
International Response and the Role of Trade Partners
Global Criticism and Diplomatic Realities
Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and other organizations have repeatedly condemned the UAE’s labor practices and called for the abolition of the Kafala system, enforcement of anti-discrimination laws, and the establishment of independent unions. However, many governments and trade partners—including the UK—continue to prioritize economic and strategic interests over human rights, often resuming trade negotiations without meaningful labor protections.
The Need for Binding Commitments
The absence of binding labor protections in trade agreements and the lack of independent oversight perpetuate the cycle of abuse. International actors must demand transparency, accountability, and concrete reforms as conditions for economic cooperation.
Recommendations: Toward Structural Change
Abolish the Kafala System
- Decouple residency status from employer sponsorship.
- Ensure workers can freely change jobs and leave the country without employer consent.
Enforce Wage Protections and Ban Recruitment Fees
- Mandate timely payment of wages and establish a universal minimum wage.
- Ban recruitment fees and provide mechanisms for workers to recover stolen wages.
Strengthen Legal Protections and Enforcement
- Extend full labor law protections to all workers, including domestic workers.
- Establish independent complaint mechanisms and legal aid for abused workers.
Empower Workers and Address Discrimination
- Allow the formation of independent unions and collective bargaining.
- Implement and enforce anti-discrimination laws in workplaces, ensuring equal pay for equal work regardless of nationality or race.
International Accountability
- Require labor rights and human rights commitments in all trade and investment agreements with the UAE.
- Support independent monitoring and reporting of migrant worker conditions.
Despite the UAE’s image as a beacon of modernity and opportunity, the reality for millions of migrant workers is one of structural discrimination, exploitation, and abuse. The persistence of wage theft, passport confiscation, and restricted movement—rooted in the Kafala system and reinforced by weak enforcement—demands urgent and comprehensive reform. Only through binding legal changes, robust enforcement, and international accountability can the UAE begin to fulfill its promises to those who have built its success.